Review of research on international water resources conflict and resolution

doi:10.3969/j.issn.1004-9479.2024.02.20222125

Abstract

Abstract:

Water resources conflict is a key scientific issue related to regional security and global sustainable development. With the intensification of global climate change, changes in the spatial and temporal distribution of water resources have led to more complex and uncertain water conflicts. Based on the temporal and spatial distribution characteristics of 1240 water conflicts in the world in the past hundred years, and based on the theories of resource science, economics, international politics, etc., this paper reveals that water conflicts in various regions have their natural ecological, social economic, historical and cultural, and international political roots, and then analyzes the causes of water conflicts from three perspectives: scarcity of resources, internationalization of river basins, asymmetry of water power among countries, and lack and failure of water cooperation mechanisms. Finally, from the perspective of international relations and negotiations, the current solution mechanism is explored, and based on the natural, economic and historical characteristics and development demands of each region, the coordination mechanism and solution suitable for cross-border water resource conflicts are explored through measures such as enhancing regional interest sharing, carrying out comprehensive watershed planning, and strengthening the implementation of international treaties.

Key words: water conflict, water resources, coordination mechanism, regional sharing

摘要：

水资源冲突是关系到区域安全和全球可持续发展的关键科学问题。随着全球气候变化的加剧，水资源时空分布变化导致水冲突问题呈现更复杂和更不确定态势。本文基于全球近百年来1 240件水冲突事件的时空分布特征，立足资源科学、经济学、国际政治学等理论，揭示出各地区水冲突的产生有其自然生态、社会经济、历史文化、国际政治的根源，进而从资源稀缺、流域国际化与国家间水权力不对称、水合作机制缺失与失灵三个角度剖析水冲突的原因。最后，从传统的技术、经济手段向国际关系、国际谈判的视角探求目前的解决机制，提出立足各地区自然、经济、历史特征和发展诉求，通过增进区域利益共享、开展综合流域规划、加强国际条约的执行力等措施探寻适合跨境水资源冲突的协调机制和解决方案。

关键词: 水冲突, 水资源, 协调机制, 区域共享

Yifei ZHANG, Ziyang JIN, Binqin SHAN, Yiwei WANG, Jiajun MA. Review of research on international water resources conflict and resolution[J]. World Regional Studies, 2024, 33(2): 27-39.

张翼飞, 金紫洋, 山冰沁, 王艺蔚, 马家军. 全球跨境水资源冲突与解决方案的研究综述[J]. 世界地理研究, 2024, 33(2): 27-39.

Figures/Tables 3

References 65

1	李东燕.全球水资源短缺对国际安全的影响.世界经济与政治,1998(05):48-53.
	LI D. Impact of global water shortage on international security. World Economy and Politics, 1998(05):48-53.
2	卢函,杜德斌,桂钦昌,等.跨界水冲突、合作与全球水政治关系时空演化.资源科学,2020,42(06):1162-1174.
	LU H, DU D, GUI Q,et al. Transboundary water conflict, cooperation and temporal and spatial evolution of global water political relations. Resource science,2020,42(06):1162-1174.
3	VÖRÖSMARTY C, MCINTYRE, GESSNER M, et al. Global threats to human water security and river biodiversity. Nature, 2010,467(7315): 555-561.
4	IPCC.Climate Change 2022:Impacts,Adaptation and Vulnerability. 2022[2022-02-28]..
5	王涛,刘承良,杜德斌.1948—2018年国际河流跨境水冲突的时空演化规律.地理学报,2021,76(07):1792-1809.
	WANG T, LIU C, DU D. Temporal and spatial evolution of cross-border water conflicts in international rivers from 1948 to 2018. Journal of Geography, 2021,76(07):1792-1809.
6	曾祥裕,张春燕.水安全问题对印度可持续发展的影响.南亚研究季刊,2016(01):45-53.
	ZENG X, ZHANG C.The impact of water security on the sustainable development of India.South Asian Studies Quarterly,2016(01):45-53.
7	李昕蕾.冲突抑或合作:跨国河流水治理的路径和机制.外交评论,2016,33(01):126-152.
	LI X.Conflict or cooperation: the path and mechanism of transnational river water governance. Foreign Affairs Review,2016,33(01): 126-152.
8	WANG L, FANG L, HIPEL K. Basin-wide cooperative water resources allocation. European Journal of Operational Research,2008(190): 798-817 .
9	曾尊固,龙国英.尼罗河水资源与水冲突.世界地理研究,2002(02):101-106.
	ZENG Z, LONG G. Nile Water Resources and Water Conflict. World Regional Studies, 2002(02):101-106.
10	李浩,刘陶,黄薇.跨界水资源冲突的动因分析.中国水利,2010(03):12-14.
	LI H, LIU T, HUANG W. Analysis on the causes of transboundary water resources conflict. China Water Conservancy, 2010(03):12-14.
11	HOMER-DIXON T F. Environmental scarcities and violent conflict: evidence from cases. International Security, 1994, 19(1): 5-40.
12	ZEITOUN M, WARNER J. Hydro-hegemony: A framework for analysis of trans-boundary water conflicts. Water Policy,2006,8(5):435-460.
13	DA S, LUIS P, HUSSEIN H. Production of scale in regional hydropolitics: An analysis of La Plata River Basin and the Guarani Aquifer System in South America. Geoforum,2019(99): 42-53.
14	UNFRIED K, KIS-KATOS K, POSER T. Water scarcity and social conflict. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 2022(113):102-633.
15	WOLF A T. International water conflict resolution: Lessons from comparative analysis. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 1997, 13(3):333-366.
16	YOFFE S, WOLF A T, GIORDANO M. Conflict and cooperation over international freshwater resources: indicators of basins at risk. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 2003,39(5):1109-1126.
17	HENSEL P, BROCHMANN M. Peaceful management of international river claims. International Negotiation, 2009,14(2):393-418.
18	MARCO G, FRANCO F, GIORDANO A, et al. Comparison of reliability, validity, and responsiveness of the Mini-BESTest and Berg Balance Scale in patients with balance disorders.Physical Therapy, 2013,93(2):158-167.
19	吴凤平,季英雯,李芳,等.跨境水资源分配典型模式特征评述及中国主张思考.自然资源学报,2021,36(07):1861-1872.
	WU F, JI Y, LI F,et al. Comments on the characteristics of typical models of cross border water resources allocation and thoughts on China's propositions. Journal of Natural Resources, 2021,36(07):1861-1872.
20	GLEICK P, HEBERGER M. Water Confict Chronology. Washington: Island Press,2012.
21	HUB G W.Water, Conflict and Cooperation.Social Science Electronic Publishing, 2015, 1(3):544-552.
22	TSILLAS V. Research on water disputes. Innovative Energy & Research, 2015(4):3.
23	李昕蕾,华冉.国际流域水安全复合体中的安全秩序建构:基于澜沧江-湄公河流域水冲突-合作事件的分析.社会科学,2019(3):17-35.
	LI X, HUA R.The construction of security order in the international river basin water security complex--Based on the analysis of the Lancang River-Mekong River water conflict-cooperative event.Social Sciences,2019(3):17-35.
24	KANSAL M, EKADU S. Hydropolitics in water governance of the Nile River in Africa.//KAMOJJALA S. World Environmental and Water Resources Congress,2018.
25	杨晓萍.超越"稀缺—冲突"视角:中印崛起背景下跨境水资源问题.国际论坛,2012,14(04):37-43.
	YANG X.Beyond the "scarcity-conflict" perspective: cross-border water resources issues under the background of the rise of China and India.International Forum,2012,14(04):37-43.
26	WIRTH D A. Climate chaos. Foreign Policy,1989(74):3-22.
27	BROWN N. Climate, ecology and international security. Survival,1989,31(6):519-532.
28	WARNER J. The politics of diversion-bridging troubled water in the Middle East. Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam,1992.
29	LIU J, DIETZ T, CARPENTER S, et al. Complexity of coupled human and natural systems. Science,2007,317(5844):1513-1516.
30	CHOUDHURY E, ISLAM S. Nature of transboundary water conflicts: issues of complexity and the enabling conditions for negotiated cooperation. Journal of Contemporary Water Research & Education,2015(155):43-52.
31	HUSSEIN H, GRANDI M. Dynamic political contexts and power asymmetries: the cases of the Blue Nile and the Yarmouk Rivers. International Environment Agreements,2017(17):795-814.
32	DRAPER S. Introduction to transboundary water sharing. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 2007,133(5):377-381.
33	UPRETY K, SALMON M A. Legal aspects of sharing and management of transboundary waters in South Asia: preventing conflicts and promoting cooperation. Hydrological Sciences Journal,2011,56(4):641-661.
34	HIRSCH P. The shifting regional geopolitics of Mekong dams. Political Geography,2016,51:63-74.
35	NORMAN B K. Governing water across the Canada-US borderland. Toronto:Oxford University Press,2010.
36	NORMAN E S, BAKKER K. Do good fences make good neighbours? Canada-United States transboundary water governance, the Boundary Waters Treaty, and twenty-first-century challenges. Water International, 2015, 40(1): 199-213.
37	牛文娟,王慧敏,牛富.跨界水资源冲突中地方保护主义行为的演化博弈分析.管理工程学报,2014,28(02):64-72.
	NIU W, WANG H, NIU F.The evolutionary game analysis of local protectionism in cross-border water resources conflicts.Journal of Management Engineering,2014,28(02):64-72.
38	Water DINAR S., security, conflict and cooperation. SAIS Review, 2002,22(2):238-239.
39	NORMAN E S, KAREN B. Transgressing scales: Water governance across the Canada-U.S. Borderland. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 2009,99(1):99-117.
40	MENGA F. Domestic and international dimensions of transboundary water politics. Water Alternatives,2016,9(3):704-723.
41	ROUSSELOT Y. Upstream flows of water: From the Lesotho Highlands to Metropolitan South Africa. Journal of Alpine Research \| Revue de géographie alpine, 2015:103(3).
42	FISCHHENDLER I, KATZ D. The politics of unilateral environmentalism: cooperation and conflict over water management along the Israeli-Palestinian Border. Global Environmental Politics,2011,11(1):36-61.
43	JORDAN-WERHANE D. Sociology of water: Power and politics.Denton: Texas Woman's University,2014.
44	郝少英.跨国水资源和谐开发十大关系法律初探.自然资源学报,2011,26(01):166-176.
	HAO S.A preliminary study on ten laws concerning the harmonious development of transnational water resources.Journal of Natural Resources,2011,26(01):166-176.
45	ASAH, STANLEY T. Transboundary hydro‐politics and climate change rhetoric: an emerging hydro‐security complex in the lake chad basin. WIREs Water,2015(2):37-45.
46	WARNER J, NEDA Z. Hegemony and asymmetry: multiple-chessboard games on transboundary rivers. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics,2012,12(3):215-229.
47	BARK R H, FRISVOLD G, FLESSA K W. The role of economics in transboundary restoration water management in the Colorado River Delta. Water Resources and Economics,2014,8:43-56.
48	WOLF A T, YOFFE S B, MARK G. International waters: identifying basins at risk. Water Policy,2003,5(1):29-60.
49	BALTUTIS W J, MICHELE-LEE M. Whose border? Contested geographies and Columbia River Treaty Modernization. Journal of Borderlands Studies,2019,35(1):1-21.
50	LINTON J, DAVID B. Governance of transboundary aquifers: new challenges and new opportunities. Water International, 2011,36(5):606-618.
51	杨梦杰,杨凯,李根,等.博弈视角下跨界河流水资源保护协作机制——以太湖流域太浦河为例.自然资源学报,2019,34(06):1232-1244.
	YANG M, YANG K, LI G,et al.Coordination mechanism for water resources protection of transboundary rivers from the perspective of game game--Taking Taipu River in Taihu Basin as an example.Journal of Natural Resources,2019,34(06):1232-1244.
52	SDERBAUM F. Rethinking the politics of transboundary water management: The case of the Zambezi River Basin. International Journal of Water Governance,2015,3(3): 1-12.
53	SALMORAL G, SCHAAP N C, WALSCHEBAUER J,et al. Water diplomacy and nexus governance in a transboundary context: In the search for complementarities. Science of the Total Environment,2019(690):85-96.
54	ABDELHADY D, AGGESTAM K, ANDERSSON D E,et al. The Nile and the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam: Is There a Meeting Point between Nationalism and Hydrosolidarity?. Journal of Contemporary Water research & education,2015(155):73-82.
55	MARTIN A, RUTAGARAMA E, CASCAO A,et al. Understanding the co-existence of conflict and cooperation: Transboundary ecosystem management in the Virunga Massif. Journal of Peace Research,2011,48(5):621-635.
56	CHOKKAKULA S. Transboundary politics of cooperation: Telugu ganga project, India. Regional Environmental Change,2018(18):1645-1654.
57	KIBAROGLU A, SCHEUMANN W. Evolution of transboundary politics in the Euphrates-Tigris River System: New perspectives and political challenges. Global Governance,2013,19(2):279-305.
58	DINAR S, KATZ D, DE STEFANO L, et al. Do treaties matter? Climate change, water variability, and cooperation along transboundary river basins. Political Geography, 2019(69):162-172.
59	HELLEGERS P. The role of economics to promote a sustainable use and management of transboundary water resources // VOGTMANN H, DOBRETSOV N. Transboundary Water Resources: Strategies for Regional Security and Ecological Stability, Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 2005:129-140.
60	MIRUMACHI N, CHAN K. Anthropocentric hydro politics? Key developments in the analysis of international transboundary water politics and some suggestions for moving forward. Aquatic Procedia,2014,2(3):9-15.
61	DINAR A, HOGARTH M. Game theory and water resources: Critical review of its contributions, progress and remaining challenges. Foundations and Trends® in Microeconomics,2015,11(1-2):1-139.
62	AVIRAM R, KATZ D, SHMUELI D. Desalination as a game-changer in transboundary hydro-politics. Water Policy, 2014,16:609-624.
63	JALILOV S. Reducing conflict in development and allocation of transboundary rivers. Eurasian Geography and Economics, 2013, 54(1):78-109.
64	COLEEN A FOX, SNEDDON C. Political borders, epistemological boundaries, and contested knowledges: Constructing dams and narratives in the Mekong River Basin. Water,2019,11(3):413.
65	WOLF AARON T. The transboundary freshwater dispute database project. Water International,1999,24(2):160-163.

研究主题	参考文献	主要观点
水冲突影响因素	Homer-Dixon等^[11]，1994；Jeroen Warner等^[12]，2006；李昕蕾^[7]，2016；Da Silva等^[13]，2019；Kerstin Unfried等^[14]，2022	环境稀缺会产生暴力冲突，影响国际安全；水霸权；维护自身“水安全”；干旱引起的水量减少可能增加水冲突
水冲突解决途径	Wolf A T ^[15]，1997；Wolf A T 等^[16]，2003；Marit Brochmann等^[17]，2009；MARCO G等^[18]，2013；李昕蕾^[7]，2016；吴凤平等^[19]，2021	流域综合治理；金融工具激励机制；水条约执行；水资源稀缺水平高、对水需求高的跨界流域成员国更容易进行水合作；“水机制”“水谈判”和一体化水管理是主要解决途径；构建跨境水资源调控机制

研究主题	参考文献	主要观点
水冲突影响因素	Homer-Dixon等^[11]，1994；Jeroen Warner等^[12]，2006；李昕蕾^[7]，2016；Da Silva等^[13]，2019；Kerstin Unfried等^[14]，2022	环境稀缺会产生暴力冲突，影响国际安全；水霸权；维护自身“水安全”；干旱引起的水量减少可能增加水冲突
水冲突解决途径	Wolf A T ^[15]，1997；Wolf A T 等^[16]，2003；Marit Brochmann等^[17]，2009；MARCO G等^[18]，2013；李昕蕾^[7]，2016；吴凤平等^[19]，2021	流域综合治理；金融工具激励机制；水条约执行；水资源稀缺水平高、对水需求高的跨界流域成员国更容易进行水合作；“水机制”“水谈判”和一体化水管理是主要解决途径；构建跨境水资源调控机制

地域	数量	形成原因	表现形式	影响
亚洲	500~1 000	战争；不同国家、群体对于水权的控制；政治经济问题；缺水而造成不同国家、地区间的冲突；污水排放影响渔业发展；文化差异	摧毁防洪堤、大坝、水电设施；抗议示威甚至升级为暴力冲突；切断对方的供水；向水源投毒污染水质	经济损失惨重；人员伤亡；影响国家间政治局势和社会稳定
非洲	200~500	殖民问题；战争及内战；政治问题；不同群体之间因缺水导致的冲突；种族及宗教等	摧毁水电站、水坝等设施，迫害其工作人员；不同利益群体间（包括人与动物、不同村落、部族、组织、农民与牧民）的冲突，易演变成暴力事件；网络入侵供水系统	经济损失；人员伤亡较多；妇女、儿童的人权受到威胁
美洲	100~200	民族主义；恐怖主义；开采矿及河流改道等项目用水对当地水质、水量造成影响；水资源使用权（水费、水私有化）等	投放生物制剂、细菌、神经毒气、重金属等物质污染水质；武装袭击供水系统；游行示威；谋杀政府官员；网络入侵供水设施等系统	经济损失；人员伤亡；多项开发项目搁置；水质污染影响人们健康
欧洲	0~100	战争、争夺水源控制权、寻求独立或是特定组织的利益、水源用途冲突或个人劳资问题等	破坏水电站、大坝、输水管道等基础设施；投入化学物质、细菌等物质污染水质；投放炸弹；抗议示威	经济损失；人员伤亡；水质污染影响人民健康

地域	数量	形成原因	表现形式	影响
亚洲	500~1 000	战争；不同国家、群体对于水权的控制；政治经济问题；缺水而造成不同国家、地区间的冲突；污水排放影响渔业发展；文化差异	摧毁防洪堤、大坝、水电设施；抗议示威甚至升级为暴力冲突；切断对方的供水；向水源投毒污染水质	经济损失惨重；人员伤亡；影响国家间政治局势和社会稳定
非洲	200~500	殖民问题；战争及内战；政治问题；不同群体之间因缺水导致的冲突；种族及宗教等	摧毁水电站、水坝等设施，迫害其工作人员；不同利益群体间（包括人与动物、不同村落、部族、组织、农民与牧民）的冲突，易演变成暴力事件；网络入侵供水系统	经济损失；人员伤亡较多；妇女、儿童的人权受到威胁
美洲	100~200	民族主义；恐怖主义；开采矿及河流改道等项目用水对当地水质、水量造成影响；水资源使用权（水费、水私有化）等	投放生物制剂、细菌、神经毒气、重金属等物质污染水质；武装袭击供水系统；游行示威；谋杀政府官员；网络入侵供水设施等系统	经济损失；人员伤亡；多项开发项目搁置；水质污染影响人们健康
欧洲	0~100	战争、争夺水源控制权、寻求独立或是特定组织的利益、水源用途冲突或个人劳资问题等	破坏水电站、大坝、输水管道等基础设施；投入化学物质、细菌等物质污染水质；投放炸弹；抗议示威	经济损失；人员伤亡；水质污染影响人民健康

[1]	Shixing JIAO, Anzhou WANG, Linfang CHEN, Jianwei ZHANG, Rongqin ZHAO, Zhongxuan LI, Yixing YIN. Three-dimensional water ecological footprint measurement and its driving factors in China's provinces [J]. World Regional Studies, 2022, 31(5): 988-997.
[2]	Sujuan ZHONG, Xiyan MAO, Xianjin HUANG. Water resources exploitation and utilization of international rivers in China from the perspective of geo-security [J]. World Regional Studies, 2022, 31(3): 466-477.
[3]	Xixi ZHANG, Zhengxu CAO, Renjie ZHANG, Yuangang HAN, Xuan LI. Evaluation and prediction of water resource carrying capacity in eco-economic zone of Yellow River Delta [J]. World Regional Studies, 2022, 31(3): 549-560.
[4]	Yanping CHEN, Chang LIU. Research on water resources utilization efficiency and its influencing factors in China [J]. World Regional Studies, 2022, 31(3): 591-601.
[5]	Zihao YU, Debin DU, Chengliang LIU, Qifan XIA, Chaofeng QIAN. A literature review on water conflict [J]. World Regional Studies, 2020, 29(5): 893-904.
[6]	Shixing JIAO, Anzhou WANG, Xinxin ZHANG, Chongchong ZHANG, Rongqin ZHAO, Linfang CHEN, Jianwei ZHANG. Coordinated development of industrial structure and water resources in Henan Province under the "New Normal" [J]. World Regional Studies, 2020, 29(2): 358-365.
[7]	Debin DU, Chengliang LIU, Zhiding HU, Yahua MA. The impact of “Asian Water Tower” change on the geopolitical environment around China [J]. World Regional Studies, 2020, 29(2): 223-231.